SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT LEARNING THEORY-BASED LEARNING THEORY

SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT LEARNING
THEORY-BASED LEARNING THEORY

I. Practicum Objectives
This practicum students are expected to be able to apply learning theories to guide students in learning science.
II. Basic Theory
Learning is a process of behavior change as a result of the interaction of individuals with lingkungannnya in meeting their daily needs. Santrock and yussen (1994) defines learning as a relatively permanent change because of the experience. Reber (1988) defines learning in two senses. First, learning as a process of acquiring knowledge and second, learning as a change in the ability to react relatively enduring as a result of reinforced practice. From the two definitions above can be concluded that learning is a process of acquiring knowledge and experience in the form of changes in behavior and ability to react to a permanent or settled because of the interaction of individuals with their environment.
The characteristics of learning behavior include changes in the behavior of a conscious, continuous and functional character, be positive and active, is permanent, has the objective, and covers all aspects of behavior. While the factors that affect learning include internal factor and internal eksternal.Faktor consists of physical and psychological factors. External factors consist of family factors, school and community.
Learning by Sujana (2000) is every effort made intentionally by educators who can lead learners perform learning activities. Gulo (2004) defines learning as an attempt to create systems that optimize the learning environment. Nasution (2005) defines learning as an organized activity or manage the environment as well as possible and menghubungkannnya with students that resulted in the learning process. of the three definitions can be concluded that learning is a deliberate effort made by penddidik to convey knowledge, organize and create a system environment with a variety of methods so that students can conduct learning activities effectively and efficiently and with maximum results.
Learning method means how that is done in the learning process so as to obtain maximum results. Methods which can be selected teachers in the learning activities include lecture method, practice, frequently asked questions, field trips, demonstrations, sociodrama, playing the role, giving the task and recitation, experiments, and methods of the project.
Learning theory is a set of general statements used to describe the reality of learning. many learning theories that can be used by teachers for the sake of learning and the learning process. There are 4 views of the psychology of the psychology Behavioristic learning theory, cognitive, humanistic, and views of Ki Hajar Dewantara.
Behavioristic learning theory pioneered by Edward Lee Thorndike, IP. Pavlov, BF. Skinner, Robert Gagne, Albert Bandura. Behavioristic method is suitable for acquiring skills that require practice and conditioning that contain elements such as: speed, spontaneity, flexibility, reflexes, endurance, etc..
Cognitive learning theory pioneered by W. Kohler, in the view of gestalt psychology seseorng concluded that acquiring knowledge through sensation or information by looking at the overall structure and then putting it back together in a simpler structure that is more easily understood.
Konstruktifistik theory pioneered by John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Left vigotski. This theory strongly believe that students are able to find your own problems, develop their own knowledge through the ability to think and the challenges it faces, finish and make the overall concept of the realistic experience and theory in a single building intact.
Humanistic learning theories pioneered by Artur Combes, Maslow, and Rogers Charel. Learning based on humanistic theory suitable to be applied to learning materials is the formation of personality, conscience, change attitudes, and analysis of social change.
The concept of learning from the famous kihajar Dewantara is sung tuladha ngarsa ing, ing intermediate tut wuri handayani Mangun intention.
III. Tools and Materials
A. Various kinds of literature on learning theory
B. List of questions to find out about the understanding of learning theory
C. Stationery
IV. Working Methods
A. Create content summary of each learning theory.
B. Answering questions about understanding the theory of learning.
C. Creating a topic teorinbelajar ipa and what is right for the application of these learning
D. Make an analysis and conclusions of activities dibutir C
E. Discuss the analysis and conclusions made by the group presented by other groups.
F. Reported the main results of the activities that have been done.
V. Discussion
A. Behavior Learning Theory
1.Teori Edward Lee Thorndike
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 - 1949) suggests some study of law known as the Law of effect. Learning will be more successful if the students' response to a stimulus immediately followed by pleasure or satisfaction. Pleasure or satisfaction can arise as a result children get praise or other rewards. This stimulus, including reinforcement. After the child successfully carry out their duties properly and quickly, on children's self-complacency emerged as a result of its success. Children gain a success which in turn would deliver himself to the next level of success.
Stimulus-response learning theory advanced by Thorndike is also called koneksionisme. This theory essentially states that learning is a process of establishing the relationship between stimulus and response. There are some legal proposition or readiness (law of readiness), the law practice (law of exercise) and the legal effect (law of effect).
Legal readiness to explain how a child's readiness in performing an activity. A child who has a tendency to act or perform certain activities and then he was doing these activities, then his actions will give birth to her satisfaction. Other measures that he did not lead to satisfaction for himself.
A child who has a tendency to act and then act, while his actions resulted in dissatisfaction for him, will always refrained from actions that gave birth to that dissatisfaction. A child who does not mernpunyai tendency to act or perform certain activities, while the child was taking action, then what it does it will cause discontent for him. He will take other actions to eliminate dissent. From the above characteristics can be concluded that a child will be more successful learning, if he was ready for learning activities.
The law states that if the exercise stimulus-response relationship occurs frequently, the relationship will become stronger, while the more rare ¬ stimulus-response relationship is used, then the weak relationship occurred. Legal training is basically on the basis that the stimulus and the response will have a relationship with each other strongly, if the process of frequent repetition, the more activity is done then the relations would be automatic. A child who is faced with a problem often encountered will immediately conduct a rapid response in accordance with his experience at the previous time.
The fact indicates that the repetition that will positively impact the regular repetition frequency, form repetition is not boring, and activities are presented in interesting ways.
As an example to teach the concept of mapping in children, the teacher explains the notion of mapping, followed by examples of the relation. Teachers examine whether the child had actually mastered the concept of mapping. For the teacher asked if all the displays relationships that include mapping or not. If not, the child is asked to explain the reasons or causes mapping criteria are not met. Strengthening the concept in a way this is done with repetition. But it does not mean that the repetition is done by the form of questions or the same information, but in a modified form of information, so that children do not feel bored.
In legal effect explained that satisfaction born of the rewards from the teacher will give satisfaction for the child, and children tend to try to do or improve what has been achieved it. Teachers who give the fair to answer child's smile, will further strengthen the concept that is embedded in children. The words "Good", "Great", "You're very meticulous" and the like will be a gift to children who will improve him in mastering the lesson.
Instead teachers should also be responsive to the child the wrong response. If the errors children are left without proper explanation from the teacher, there is kernungkinan child will think is right and then repeat it. Children who complete the assignment or homework, but his work was not checked by the teacher, it is possible he thought that the answer provided is correct. This assumption will result in wrong answers stay at the time the child take the test.
Similarly, children who have been following the test and got an ugly, mistake it does need to be notified at the time of testing. Not surprisingly, presumably, if there are children who were given repeated tests, but the result was still bad. It is possible that holding the concept was regarded as the correct answer. Such reinforcement would be very detrimental to the child. Therefore needs to be eliminated.
From the law of this result can be concluded that if there is a strong association between the questions and answers, then the material presented will be embedded in the memory longer a child. In addition, the number of repetitions will largely determine the length of the concept of the child in mind. The more frequent repetitions done will be even stronger concept embedded in the memories of children.
In addition, Thorndike argued also that the quality and quantity of student learning outcomes depending on the quality and quantity of Stimulus-Response (SR) in the implementation of teaching and learning activities. More and more and better quality teachers SR given, then the more and the better student learning outcomes.
Next Thorndike proposed additional law as follows:
a. Laws vary reaction (law of multiple response)
The individual begins with the process of trial and error that shows a variety of responses prior to obtaining the appropriate response in solving the problem.

b. Legal attitudes (law of Attitude)
One's learning behavior is not only determined by the stimulus and response relationship, but also determined by the circumstances that exist within the individual either cognitive, emotional, social, and psikomotornya.
c. Law-sided activity (law of prepotency element)
Individuals in the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli in accordance with his perceptions of the overall situation (selective response).
d. Legal responses through analogy (law of response by analogous)
Individuals can make a response to the situation that has never experienced because individuals can actually connect a situation that has never experienced with the old situation of having experienced that resulted in the transfer or movement of the elements that have been known to new situations. The more common elements, then the transfer will be more easy.
e. Legal transfer of association (law of associative shifting)
The process of transition from a situation known to the unknown situation gradually made by adding little by little the old elements.
In addition to adding new laws, in the course of delivering his theory, Thorndike proposed revisions to the law of learning, among others:
a. Legal training was found abandoned because not enough repetitions to strengthen stimulus-response relationship, otherwise no repetition will not necessarily weaken the stimulus-response relationship.
b. Legal effect (law of effect) was revised, because in his research further found that only a part of this law is correct. If given the prize (reward), it will increase the stimulus-response relationship, whereas if given sentence (punishment) does not result in anything.
c. The main requirement of stimulus-response relationship was not close, but a mutual fit between the stimulus and response.
d. As a result of an act can be transmitted either in other fields as well as on other individuals.
The implications of this association in the flow of teaching and learning activities of everyday is that:
a. In explaining a particular concept, teachers should take an example that if is often encountered in daily life. Props from the nature around will be more internalized.
b. Method of assignment, training methods (drill and practice) would be more suitable for strengthening and rote. With the application of these methods will be more students get the stimulus so that responses would be given more.
c. In the curriculum, the materials have been prepared from material that is easy, medium, and difficult according to grade level and school level. Mastery of the material more easily as a result to be able to master the material more difficult. In other words the topic (concept) must be mastered first prerequisite to understand the next topic.
2. Theory Burhus Frederic Skinner
Burhus Frederic Skinner stated that the reward or reinforcement has a very important role in the learning process. There is a difference between reward and reinforcement. The reward is the response that are uplifting and a behavior that nature subjective, while the reinforcement is something that resulted in the increased likelihood of a response and more directed to the things that nature can be observed and measured.
In theory, Skinner states that the reinforcement consists of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement can be regarded as a positive stimulus, if the reinforcement is in line with the increase in the child's behavior in performing the repetition behavior. In this case the reinforcement given to children to strengthen the actions of children, so children more often. Which includes examples of positive reinforcement such as praise given to the child. The attitude of teachers who have fun at the time of the child to answer the question, is also positive reinforcement. To change your child's behavior from negative to positive, teachers need to know the psychology that can be used to estimate (predict) and control the behavior of children. Teachers in the classroom has a duty to direct children in learning activities, because at that time, the control is in the teacher, who is authorized to give instructions or a ban on his protege.
Strengthening will leave their mark in children's self. Those who won praise after successfully completing a task or answer questions usually will try to meet the next task with gusto. Strengthening the form of gifts or praise will motivate children to study hard and maintain the achievements that he achieved. Such strengthening should be given immediate and delayed-¬ unnecessary delay. Because reinforcement would leave their mark in children, while strengthening the expected positive results, the strengthening of a given course should be directed to the child the correct response. Do not give children the strengthening of the response if the response is actually not necessary.
Skinner added that if a good student response (support the effectiveness of achieving the goal) should be given positive reinforcement for the response is better, or at least it works well maintained. For example, by saying "good, keep achievements" for students who scored satisfactory test. Conversely, if students have little or no response is expected so it does not support teaching purposes, should be given a negative reinforcement for the response is not repeated again and turned into a response that is a positive. Negative reinforcement can be either a reprimand, warning, or penalty (penalty educative).

3. Theory David Paul Ausubel
This theory is known for learning meaningless and the importance of repetition before the study began. Meaningful learning (meaningful learning) is the process linking the new information with the relevant concepts and contained in one's cognitive structure. He distinguishes between learning found by studying receptive. In learning to accept students only receive, so stay menghapalkannya, but on learning to find a concept invented by students, so do not receive lessons for granted. Also to be able to distinguish between learning to memorize the learning meaningful. In learning to memorize, students memorize the material that has been obtained, but in meaningful learning material that has been obtained it was developed by another state so that learning is more understandable.
Based on meaningful learning, Ausabel proposed five principles of learning as follows:
a. Subsumption
The process of incorporation of ideas or experiences of patterns and ideas that have already owned.
b. Advance organizer
Regulatory initial (advance organizer) can be used by teachers in helping to link the old concept with a new concept of a higher meaning. The use of early appropriate regulator to improve the understanding of a variety of materials, especially subject matter that already had a regular structure. At the start of learning a subject should be using an advanced organizer, so that learning will be more meaningful.
c. Progressive differentiation
In the process of meaningful learning and collaboration is necessary to develop concepts. The way the elements of the most common and inclusive dipekenalkan first and then new, more detailed, so that the learning process from general to specific is accompanied with examples.
d. Consolidation
The material must be mastered first before proceeding further into the material when the material became the basis for subsequent material. Stabilization of the material presented more examples or exercises so that students can better understand and more ready to accept new material.
e. Integrative Reconciliation
At one point students are likely to face the fact that two or more names of concepts used to express the same concept or if the same name is applied in more than one concept. To resolve that cognitive conflict, Ausabel adjustments proposed the concept of integrative learning. The way the subject matter arranged in such a way that teachers can use conceptual hierarchies to the top and down over the information presented.
In general, Ausubel theory into practice as follows:
a. Define learning goals.
b. Gauging the readiness of students (interests, abilities, cognitive structures), either through initial tests, interviews, reviews, questions, and others.
c. Choosing the subject matter and set it in the form of presentation of key concepts.
d. Identify the principles that must be mastered students from the material.
e. Presents an overall view of what must be learned.
f. Make a summary of the material that has just given, is equipped with a short description that shows the relevance (relevance) of material that has been provided with new material that will be given.
g. Teaching students to understand concepts and principles that have been determined by giving focus on the relationship between existing concepts.
h. Evaluate the process and learning outcomes.
When considered as a method of finding a good teaching method as meaningful, and vice versa lecture method is a method that is learn to accept, Ausubel oppose that opinion. He argues that the method of the invention as well as with the lecture method can be learned to accept, or learn meaningful, depending on the situation.
Ausubel argued that the expository method is the best teaching methods and meaningful. This he pointed out based on the results of his research. Learning to accept and find both to be memorized or meaningful learning. For example, in studying the Pythagorean concept of a right triangle. The formula c2 = a2 b2 already presented (learn to accept), but if the students in understanding the formula is always associated with the sides of a right triangle will be a meaningful learning. Other students understand the formula that way through the search but then when he memorized them without associated with the side of a right triangle be memorized.

4. Theory Robert Mills Gagne
According to Gagne, the learning of mathematics there are two objects that can be obtained by students, namely the direct object and indirect object. Indirect object, among others, the ability to investigate and solve problems, learn independently, positive attitude toward math, and know how should learn. While the direct object in the form of facts, skills, concepts, and rules.
The fact is mathematical objects residing accept, as a symbol of numbers, angles, and other mathematical notations. Skills with the ability to provide accurate and quick answers, such as on distribution of large numbers with the parenthesis, add fractions, painting the axis of a line segment. Concepts are abstract ideas that allow us to classify objects into examples and non examples. For example, the concept of a rectilinear, prime numbers, sets, and vectors. Rules is the most abstract object in the form of properties or theorems.
According to Gagne, learning can be grouped into 8 types of learning, namely: a) learn to cue, b) stimulus response, c) range of motion, d) a series of verbal, e) distinguish, f) concept formation, g) establishment of rules, and h) solving problems. The eight types of learning were sorted according to level of learning kesukarannya sign up to learn problem-solving.
Learning is a learning signal whose level is lowest, because there is no intention or spontaneity. Examples favor or avoid the subject because of teacher behavior. Stimulus-response is a learned condition that there is intention diniati and physical responses. For example, students imitate the teacher writing on the blackboard. Motion sequence is an ordered physical act of two or more activities within the framework of stimulus-response. The series is the act of oral verbal sequences of two or more activities within the framework of stimulus-response. Examples are of the opinion, answering questions orally teacher. Learning to differentiate is to learn to separate ¬ misah circuit splits. Establishment of the concept is also called learning type grouping, namely learning to see nature with concrete objects or events to be used as a group. In particular it is necessary to study the type that expects students to be able to respond to the stimulus with all kinds of deeds. The ability here, especially the ability to use it. For example, understanding the quadratic formula and use it in solving quadratic equations. Learning problem-solving is the highest type of learning is more complex because of the formation rules.
In solving problems, usually there are five steps that must be done, namely:
a. Presenting the problem in a clear form.
b. Stating the problem in operational form.
c. Develop alternative hypotheses and procedures are expected to work well.
d. Test the hypothesis and do work to get results.
e. Check back results already obtained.
Gagne further suggested that learning outcomes should be based on behavior observations, through the stimulus-response and conditional learning. The reason is that human beings are passive organisms that can be controlled through reward and punishment

5. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov's Theory
Pavlov is famous for classical learning theory. He conducted experiments on a dog. The dog was locked up, in a cage with a certain time and be fed. Each will be given food, Pavlov rang the bell. He noted that each rung the bell at a certain time period that dog saliva issue, although not given food.
Pavlov put forward the concept of habituation (conditioning). In conjunction with teaching and learning activities, so that students learn well it must be socialized. For example, for students to do the problems homework well, get used to examine, explain, or give value to the results of his work.

6. Theory Albert Bandura
Bandura argued that students learn through imitation. Understanding imitate here does not mean cheating, but imitate the things done by others, especially teachers. If writing a good teacher, the teacher speaks good manners to use the language of good and correct, commendable behavior, explain clearly and systematically, then students will do it too. If the examples he saw he was unfavorable to imitate it. Thus teachers must be human model professional.

Bandura views of human behavior rather than purely automatic reflex of the stimulus, but also due to reactions that arise as a result of interaction between the environment with human cognitive scheme itself. From Bandura's social learning theory is a combination of learning theory Behavioristic with strengthening and cognitive psychology, with the principles of behavior modification.
Social Learning Theory (Social Learing Theory) from Bandura is based on three concepts, namely:
a. Reciprocal determinism
The approach that explains human behavior in the form of reciprocal interaction constant between the cognitive, behavioral and environmental. People determine / affect tingkahlakunya by controlling the environment, but people were also controlled by the strength of the neighborhood.
b. Beyond reinforcement
Bandura's theory of Skinner and Hull looked too dependent on reinforcement. If each unit of the complex social response should be sorted out to direforse one by one, so people can not even learn anything. According to him, reinforcement is important in determining whether a behavior will continue to happen or not, but it's not the only shaper of behavior. People can learn to do things just by observing and then repeating what he saw. Learning through observation without any reinforcement is involved, meaning the behavior is determined by the anticipated consequences.
c. Self-regulation / cognition
Traditional learning theory is often hindered by resentment or their inability to explain the cognitive processes. The concept of putting human Bandura as a person that can manage themselves (self regulation), influence behavior by regulating the environment, creating a cognitive support, hold consequences for the behavior itself.
The basic principle of social learning (social learning) is:
a. Most of the studied humans occurs through imitation (Imitation), and presenting examples of behavior (modeling).
b. In this case, a student change his own behavior through witnessing the way people / group of people who react / respond to a particular stimulus.
c. Students can learn new responses by observing the behavior of samples from others, for example: teachers / parents. Social learning theory approach to the process of social and moral development of students' emphasis on the need for habituation response (conditioning) and imitation (Imitation).
Measures of social learning (social learning) is:
a. Conditioning.
In learning to develop social and moral behavior is essentially the same as learning to develop other behaviors, namely the need for a gift / reward (reward) and punishment (punishment).
b. Imitation.
Parents and teachers should play an important role as a model / figure who serve as examples of social and moral behavior for students. Example: at first a student to observe model teachers themselves who are doing a social activity, eg, receiving guests, then deed said hello, shook hands, beramah-hearted, and so on that do it are absorbed by the memory model student. Hopefully, fast / slow the student is able to replicate their best social behavior exemplified by the model. The quality of students' skills in conducting social behavior observation of the model, among others, depending on the sharpness of the perceptions about rewards and punishments associated with right and wrong behavior that he copied from earlier models.
The principles of the model or exemplary factors as follows:
a. The highest level of learning from observations obtained by organizing since the beginning and repeat the behavior symbolically and then do it. The process would be better considering a way to encode the imitated behavior into words, signs or pictures from the simple observation only (just look at it). For example: learn dance moves from instructor requires observations from different angles to help the mirror and immediately imitated by the students on the spot. Mimic the process would be more helpful if the motion was also supported by impressions video, pictures or written instructions in the manual.
b. Individuals prefer imitated if the behavior corresponds to the value it has.
c. Individuals would like behaviors imitated if the model or role model is preferred and appreciated and useful behavior has value.
Social learning theory has many implications for classroom use, namely:
a. Students often learn a lot just by observing other people, namely teachers.
b. Describing the consequences of behavior that can effectively increase appropriate behavior and decrease inappropriate. This may involve discussions with students about the benefits and consequences of various behaviors.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to form new behaviors to teach. To promote the effective model, a teacher must ensure that there are four essential conditions, namely attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation,
d. Teachers and parents should be a model appropriate behavior and be careful that they do not imitate the inappropriate behavior,
e. Students must believe that they are able to complete school assignments. So it is important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students. Teachers can improve the effectiveness of such self-confidence by having students demonstrate experience of other people become successful, and successful experience of their own.
f. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for academic achievement. In general in the class, which means ensuring that expectations are not set too low.
g. Self-regulation technique provides an effective method to improve student behavior.
Bandura proposes three kinds of approach to treatments as follows:
a. Exercise mastery (desensitization modeling).
Teach the client controlled behavior that previously could not be done (eg fear). Treatment begins with counseling to help clients achieve deep relaxation. Then the counselor asks the client to imagine scary things gradually. For example, imagine seeing a toy snake in a shop window. If a client can imagine what happened without fear, they were asked to imagine playing with a toy snake, and then saw the snake in the stable, the zoo, and then touch a snake, until finally holding a snake. This is a model of systemic desensitization on the paradigm of behaviorism is to use the variation of reinforcement. Bandura desesitisasi systematic wear it in mind without taking a real strengthening.
b. Modeling open (participant modeling)
Clients see the real model, usually followed by a client to participate in the activities of model, assisted by the model mimic the desired behavior, until finally unable to do without assistance.
c. Symbolic Modeling.
Clients see the model in the movie, or pictures / stories.
Bandura proposes to develop learning strategies as follows:
a. Analysis of behavior that will serve as a model, consisting of:
1) What is the character of behavior that would be it be a concept model, motor-skill or effective?
2) How the sequence of these behaviors?
3) Where the location of important things (key point) in that order?
b. Define the value function of the behavior and choose a behavior as a model.
1) What behavior (ability to learn) is important in the life of the future?
2) If the learned behavior is less beneficial (not essential), then the model which is more important?
3) Does the model should be symbolized?
4) What is the reinforcement that will be obtained through the model chosen?
c. Developing the teaching sequence
1) To teach motor skills, how to do the job.
2) Which steps in the order must be presented slowly.
d. Implementation of teaching for under-motor skills and cognitive processes.
1) Motor-skill: a) present model; b) give opportunities to every learner to be a symbolic exercise, and c) give the opportunity for learners to practice with visual feedback.

2) cognitive processes: a) show the model, both supported by verbal codes or clues to look for consistency in the various samples; b) give the opportunity for learners to make a summary; c) if it is learned is the application of problem solving or strategy given the opportunity learners to participate actively seeara; and d) give learners the opportunity to make generalizations to various situations.

7. Joy Paul Guilford Theory
According to Guilford's theory, Structure of intellect a person's performance on intelligence tests can be traced back to the basic mental ability or intelligence factors. Structure of intellect consists of theory up to 150 different intellectual abilities organized along three dimensions, namely the operation, content and products.
Structure of intellect includes six operations or general intellectual processes, among others:
a. Cognition is the ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become aware of the information.
b. Recording memory is the ability to encode information.
c. Memory retention is the ability to remember information.
d. Different productions: the ability to generate multiple solutions to the problem of creativity.
e. Convergent production is the ability to conclude a solution to the problem.
f. Evaluation is the ability to assess whether the information is accurate, consistent, or valid.
Structure of intellect covers five broad areas of information / content that intellect, among others:
a. Visual information is perceived through sight.
b. Auditory information is perceived through hearing.
c. Symbolic of information regarded as symbols or signs.
d. Semantic information that is perceived in words or sentences, whether oral, written, or secretly da1am one's mind.
e. Information behavior is an individual act.
Structure of intellect model includes six products in increasing complexity, namely:
a. The unit is a single item of knowledge
b. Classes are sets units share common attributes.
c. The relationship that is relevant units as a contradiction, associations, sequences, or analogy.
d. Some systems are interconnected relationships to form a structure or network.
e. Transformation that is changing, perspective, conversion, or mutation for knowledge.
f. Implications of the prediction, conclusion, consequence, or the anticipation of knowledge.
Therefore, according to Guilford there are 6 x 5 x 6 = 180 factor of intellectual ability. The ability of each one stands for a specific operation in particular content areas and produce a particular product, namely: understanding figural or semantic implications of the evaluation unit.

Guilford original model of 120 components because it does not separate into several figural content auditory and visual content, or she has been separated into the recording and storage memory. When he separates the figural to the auditory and visual content, the model is increased to 5 x 5 x 6 = 150 categories. When Guilford separate the memory function, the model is finally increased to 180 the end of the factor.
Some changes in the structure of intellect model in Educational and Psychological Measurement, namely the theory Structure of intellect is seen as an operation that consists of the operation, content, and products, the contents of which there are 5 types of operations (cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation), 6 types of products (units, classes, relationships, systems, transformation, and implications), and 5 types of content (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). Because each of these dimensions are independent, there are 150 components of the theory of intelligence.
Guilford learning theory implications in learning as follows:
a. In solving the problem of learning mathematics can apply the questions open-ended to the students, the answers provided by students can be proved that the ability to provide various alternative answers are based on information provided by the teacher and his personal experiences.
a. Creativity of a student can be seen from its ability to solve a problem with creative ideas without stem from one theory only, so bring lots of ideas from creative thinking.
b. In a person's performance on intelligence tests can be traced back to the basic mental abilities or factors of one's own intelligence.
c. Creative thinking that occurs in students depends on her ability to bring ideas / ideas that arise in conscience to realize the ability to see the various possible solution to a problem.

B. Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Jean Piaget's Theory
Jean Piaget called the cognitive structure as schemata (schemas), which is a collection of schemes. An individual can bind to, understand, and respond to the stimulus caused by the operation of these schemata. Schemata are developed chronologically, as a result of interaction between the individual and his environment. Thus a more mature individual who has a cognitive structure is more complete than when he was little. Because of the limited schemes in children, a boy who first saw the crocodile he called it a big lizard, because he only has a concept of lizard that is often seen at his home. He just has a concept of lizard in the scheme and when he saw the alligator for the first time, the concept cecaklah closest to the stimulus. Events like this often continues in adults. This happens due to lack of vocabulary or in their daily life such concepts are rarely encountered. For example, often people call seahorse or sea lions, when both animals were much different way of life, neighborhood life, and the shape of her body with a horse or lion. The association is only partially based on a similar body shape.
The development of these schemata ongoing through adaptation to its environment. Schemata that form a particular pattern of reasoning in the minds of children. The better the quality of this scheme, the better the child is also the pattern of reasoning. The process of adaptation of schemata that have been formed with a new stimulus done in two ways, namely assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process of integrating new stimulus directly into the schemata that have been formed. Accommodation is the process of integrating new stimulus into the scheme which has been formed indirectly. This occurs because new stimuli can not be assimilated, because no appropriate scheme already has. In the process of modifying the existing accommodation scheme itself or create a new scheme, so that in accordance with the new stimulus. After that assimilation took place again. Thus the assimilation process did not produce changes in schemata, but the growth in quantity schemata. While the accommodation results in a change in quality schemata. In the example above,
a child called big lizards to crocodiles basically assimilate the child into the scheme stimulus alligator lizard.
In the cognitive structure of every individual must have a balance between assimilation to accommodation. This balance is intended to detect similarities and differences found in face stimuli. Cognitive development is essentially a change of balance that has been held to a new balance obtained.
Furthermore, Piaget argued about cognitive development experienced by each individual in more detail, from infants to adults. The theory is based on clinical studies on children of various ages middle class in Switzerland. The conclusion is that the thinking patterns of children are not the same as the pattern of thinking adults. Stage of cognitive development or the extent an individual's ability to think in accordance with his age. The more mature an individual, it also increased the ability berfikirnya. So, in view of the child wrong to assume that the child's ability with the ability of adults, because children are not miniature adults.
In addition, an individual's cognitive development is influenced also by environmental and social transmission. So, because the effectiveness of the relationship between each individual with the environment and social life different from each other, then the stage of cognitive development achieved by each individual differently. Therefore, for a child's cognitive development running optimally, should be enriched with a lot of educational experience.
Based on the results of research in the land of Switzerland in the 1950s, Piaget suggested that there are four stages of cognitive development of each individual who develops in chronological order (according to calendar age). The distribution of age at any stage is the average (about) and perhaps also there is a difference between one community with other communities, among individuals who are one with another individual.
a. Sensory Motor Stage (Sensory Motoric Stage)
For children who are at this stage, the experience gained through physical actions (movement of limbs) and sensory (coordination of sensory organs). At first the experience was united with her, this means that an object exists when there is in sight. Subsequent developments, he began trying to find the object which was originally seen and then disappeared from view, the origin of the displacement is visible. The end of this stage, he began looking for a lost object when the object is not visible displacement. Objects began to separate from him and with it the concept of object in the cognitive structure began to mature. He began to be able to represent physical objects into symbols, for example, began to speak to imitate the sound of the vehicle.
b. Pre-Operation Phase (Pre Operational Stage)
This stage is the stage of preparation for the organization of concrete operations. The term used in the operation of cognitive measures, such as: mengklasrifikasikan group of objects (classifying), laying out objects in order of ¬-specific objects (seriations), and count (counting). At this stage the child thinking more on the basis of concrete experience rather than logical thinking, so if he sees the objects that seem different, then he said it differently.
Example:
1) Show 5 (five) pieces of the same large marbles on the table. Then change the location of the marbles were to be rather far apart. When asked of children who are still in this phase. He will answer the marbles which were located far apart more.
2) Show a lump of modeling clay (soft wax) spherical. Then change it (as shown) into a flat shape so that it looks bigger. When asked which was more clay. He will answer the clay that looks flat.
3) Show the child two glass vessel of the same shape and size with two other vessels vary in size. Then the two vessels had the same glasses we fill with colored liquid as much. As he disclosed to the students of fluid in both the same glass had each moved on the second glass is different. After everything is moved and then ask if the two liquids are the same lot. Children in the preoperative stage of development will answer a lot of both liquids were different.
4) Two long pieces of rope together put on the table, then rentangannya changed. As a result, the children would say that both the string into different lengths.
5) If children are confronted on a flat surface area (made of colored paper) stating broad, then the paper was cut into pieces and collected ¬ back with a different arrangement, the child said that the broad picture will be different.

From the examples above, it appears that the child was still in the pre-operational stage not understand the concept of conservation (conservation), the conservation of many, conservation of materials, conservation of volume, length of eternity, and eternity wide. Apart from that, the characteristics of children at this stage not yet understand the operations that are reversible, can not think of two or more aspects simultaneously, yet understand the transformation operation.

c. Concrete Operational Stage (Concrete Operational Stage)
Children who are at this stage are generally already in elementary school. Generally they have to understand the logical operation with the help of concrete objects. This capability is realized in understanding the concept of eternity, the ability to classify and harmony, able to look at an object from different viewpoints objectively, and the ability to reason reversible.
Piaget identifies six types of conservation concepts developed during the child at the stage of concrete operations, namely: 1) conservation lot (6-7 years), 2) conservation of matter (7-8 years), 3) length of eternity (7-8 years ), 4) conservation area (8-9 years), 5) conservation of weight (9-10 years), and 6) conservation of volume (11-12 years).
The ability to sort objects (matching) that are understood by children at this stage developed in accordance with an understanding of the concept of eternity. The ability to sort objects based on the long-understood at the age of about 7 years old, sort the objects that are the same size but different weight reached at the age of 9 years, and sort objects according to volumnya reached in about 12 years.
In line with these two things mentioned above, children at this stage to understand the concept of equivalence and classification. Piaget prove it by experiment as follows: a child was given 20 wooden balls, 15 pieces including colored red. When asked which is more lots, wooden ball or red ball? Children in pre-operational stage to answer that red ball more, while children on the stage of concrete operations said that the wooden ball more than the red colored ball. The experiment shows us that children at the stage of concrete operations have been able to notice as well as two different kinds of groups. He has been able to classify objects that have some characteristics into sets and subsets with special characteristics, and can see some characteristics of an object simultaneously.
Children at this stage only capable of binding definitions that already exist and express it back, but has not been able to formulate their own definitions that are precise, yet able to master the verbal symbols and ideas-¬ abstract ideas.
d. Formal Operations Stage (Formal Operation Stage)
Formal operations stage is the final stage of cognitive development in quality. Children at this stage are able to do reasoning by using things that are abstract. The use of concrete objects is not needed anymore. Children are able to reason without having to deal with the object or event directly. Reasoning that happened in their cognitive structure has been able only to use symbols, ideas, abstraction and generalization. He already has the abilities to perform operations that states the relationship between the relationships, understanding the concept of promotion.
For example, we consider Piaget's experiment as follows: a child at this stage is faced with the picture "Mr. Short" and a string clip (paper clip) to measure the height of "Mr. Short" is. Then added in the form of verbal explanation that "Mr. Short" had a friend "Mr. High". Furthermore it is said that when measured with high matchstick "Mr. Short" four rods, while high "Pak High" six matchstick. How tall "Mr. High" when measured with a clip? In solving the above problems, the child must perform surgery to surgery.
Another characteristic of the child at this stage is already has the ability to do hypothetical-deductive reasoning, namely the ability to formulate a series of hypotheses and test them.
One experiment he did to his own son named Paul (9.5 years). Child gives pendulum made of clay so that the weight of the pendulum can be changed and the pendulum rope that can be changed a long-short. After going through a repetitive trial, Paul was asked to discover what are the factors that influence the time the pendulum swing? His son argued that these factors is the weight pendulum, the length of rope, and how to remove the pendulum. Then the Child noted that of these is only one thing that affects the swing. After Paul did come back earlier experiments repeatedly, he could not find it. Thus the three hypotheses put forward, he has not been able to test it.
In addition, other characteristics of the child at this stage is already has the ability to think kornbinatorial (combinatorial thought), namely the ability of develop-¬ combinations possible combinations of the elements in a system. For example, color combinations, the combination of several numbers, and a combination of several letters. Thus, children in formal operation is no longer associated with the presence or absence of concrete objects, but related to the type of thinking. Whether the situation is accompanied by concrete things or not, for the children at the stage of formal thinking is not a problem.

2. Theory Jerome Seymour Bruner
According to Bruner learning is an active process that is associated with the idea of discovery learning which students interact with their environment through exploration and manipulation of objects, create questions and conduct experiments.
Bruner describes progress in three stages:
a. Enaktif (0-3 years): the children's understanding is achieved through self exploration and physical manipulation of motor skills through sensory experiences.
b. Iconic (3-8 years): the child realizes something independently through a concrete image or picture is not an abstract.
c. Symbolic (> 8 years): the children already understand the symbols and concepts such as language and the representation of numbers as symbols.
Factors to be considered in learning:
1) The teacher should act as facilitators, to check students' prior knowledge, provide learning resources, and ask questions that are open.
2) Students build pemaknaannya through exploration, manipulation and thinking.
3) The use of technology in teaching, students should see how these technologies work rather than merely are told by the teacher.

1. Gestalt Theory
Gestalt is a theory that explains the process of perception through the organization of the components of the sensation of having relationships, patterns, or similarities to be unity. Gestalt theory in opposition to the theory of structuralism. Gestalt theory tends to work to reduce the sensation of the division into smaller parts. The term "Gestalt" refers to an object / figure intact and distinct from the sum of its parts. People of this genre is John Dewey. He argues that teaching and learning activities organized by the teachers should pay attention to such things as follows:
a. Presentation of the concept must give more priority to understanding.
b. Implementation of teaching and learning activities should pay attention to students' intellectual readiness.
c. Set the atmosphere of the class for students ready to learn.
Of the three things above, the teacher presents the materials do not provide concepts that must be taken for granted, but should be more concerned with understanding the concept formation process than the end result. For this act as mentors and teachers of the approaches is through a process approach to inductive method.
The approach and methods used must be adjusted also with intellectual readiness of students. Junior high school students are still there on the stage of concrete operations, meaning that if he would understand abstract mathematical concepts should be assisted by using concrete objects. Therefore in the implementation of teaching and learning activities begin by presenting concrete examples of diverse, then leads to the abstract concept. In this way teaching and learning activities can be expected to run significantly.
We know that external factors could affect the implementation and student learning outcomes. Therefore, before, during, and after teaching the teacher must be very clever (trying) to create conditions for students ready to learn with feeling happy, do not feel forced.
Gestalt psychology originated in the observation in the field. As Gestalt psychologists observed switch from problem to problem studied, the results of which have strong / successful in research on the observation that brought in the study of learning. Because of the assumption that the laws or principles that apply to the process of observation can be transferred to the case study, to understand the learning process one needs to understand the laws that control the observation process it.
On the observation that emphasizes attention to the forms of organized (organized form) and patterns of human perception. Gestalt psychology is famous for field theory (field) or commonly known as cognitive field theory. The group of thought agree on one thing that is a basic principle that human experience has a wealth of field that contains the whole phenomenon is more than its parts. Overall this study provides some important principles, among others:
a. Humans react with lingkunganya as a whole, not only intellectually but also physically, emotionally, socially and so forth.
b. Learning is self adjusting to the environment.
c. Humans evolved as a whole since the small to adulthood, complete with all aspects of its aspects.
d. Learning is a development towards greater differentiation.
e. Learning only succeed, if reached maturity to gain insight.
f. There can be no learning without any willingness to learn, the motivation to give impetus in moving the whole organism.
g. Learning will be successful if there is objective.
h. Learning is a process when a person is active, not like a vessel filled.
Learning is very beneficial to the activities memecahakan problem. This seems also relevant to the concept of learning theory that begins with an observation. Learning to solve the problem required a careful and complete observation. According to John Dewey, there are five problem-solving efforts as follows:
a. The realization of the problem, namely to understand what the problem and also should be able to formulate.
b. Propose a hypothesis, as a way that might give direction troubleshooting.
c. Collecting the data or information, with readings or other sources.
d. Assessing and proving the business tried out the hypothesis with descriptions obtained.
e. Draw conclusions, make reports, or create something with the solution.

3. Theory William Arthur Brownell
Brownell suggests that learning mathematics should be a meaningful learning and understanding learning. He asserted that learning is a process intrinsically meaningful. If we consider, Brownell theories developed in accordance with the Gestalt theory of teaching and learning, which emerged in mid 1930. According to Gestalt theory of teaching and learning, memorize or practice, known as the drill is very important in teaching activities. This mode is set after the embedded understanding.
Arithmetic or arithmetic given to elementary school children once more emphasizes rote and sharpen the brain. Application of the material being taught and how it relates to other subjects very few peeled. According to Brownell children who succeeded in following the lesson at that time had numeracy skills which far exceed the kids now. The number of exercises that apply to children and exercise their brain with questions long and very complicated is the influence of the doctrine of formal discipline.
There is a development that indicates that the formal doctrine it has a pretty fundamental mistake. From research conducted in the 19th century there were results that showed that learning is not through rote exercises and sharpen the brain, but acquired a child through how children act, think, get the perception, etc..
Implications of the theory of cognitive development in learning Brownell as follows:
a. Language and the way children think differently from adults. Therefore, teachers teach using appropriate language with the way children think.
b. Children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment. Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.
c. Material to be learned kids should just be felt but not foreign.
d. Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of its development.
e. Students should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and discussions with other students.
Brownell applying cognitive theory of learning depends on the accommodation. Students should be given an area that is not yet known so that he can learn, because he can not learn from what has been known only in the presence of new areas, students will conduct business to be able to accommodate.

1. The theory of Zoltan Paul Dienes
Dienes was a mathematician who focuses on the ways the teaching of children. Basic theory rests on the theory of Piaget, and development oriented to children, such that the system he developed that appeal to children who learn mathematics.
Dienes believes that mathematics can be regarded essentially as the study of structure, to isolate the relationships between structure-¬ structure and categorize the relationships between the structures. Dienes suggests that each of these concepts or principles in math presented in concrete form that can be well understood. This implies that the objects or the objects in the form of the game will be very influential when manipulated well in mathematics teaching.
The free game is a learning stage concept whose activity is not structured and not directed. This activity allows children experimenting and tinkering with (manipulate) objects of concrete and abstract elements that were studied it. In the stage of free play, children are confronted with elements of learning or interaction with the surrounding natural environment. In this stage children not only learn to form mental structures, but also learn to form the structure of attitudes to prepare ourselves in understanding the concept.
In the use of visual aids math, children can be exposed to the beam ¬ logical blocks that help children in learning abstract concepts. In learning activities using these props children learn about colors, thick thin object, which is a characteristic or properties of objects that dimanipulasinya it.
In a game that accompanied the rules, the kids have started to investigate the patterns and regularities inherent in a particular concept. This order may be contained in a particular concept but not in other concepts. Children who have understood the rules contained in the draft will be able to start the game earlier. Clearly, with the games the children are invited to begin to recognize and consider how the structure of mathematics. The more different forms given in the concept ¬-specific concepts, it will be more clearly understood the concept of children, because children will get the things that are logical and mathematical concepts learned in it.
In seeking common nature, children begin to be directed in activities to find common traits in the game that is being followed. To train the children in finding common traits of this, teachers need to direct them to translate the structural similarity of the game that one form to another form of the game. Translation is certainly not allowed to alter the properties of the abstract contained in the original game.
Representation is a stage of decision-similarity properties of several similar situations. The children determine the representation of certain concepts, once they have concluded that there are similarities in the nature of the situations he faced it. Gained representation are abstract. Thus, the children have led to the understanding of the nature of abstract mathematical structures inherent in the concept being studied.
Symbolization including the learning phase which requires the ability to formulate concepts of representation from each of the concepts by using mathematical symbols or through verbal formulation.

4. Van Hiele Theory
In the teaching of geometry are learning theory put forward by Van Hiele, which describes the stages of mental development in geometry. Van Hiele was a Dutch teacher who conducted research in the teaching of geometry. According to Van Hiele, three main elements in the learning of geometry that is time, teaching materials and teaching methods applied, if laid out in an integrated way will be to improve the thinking ability of children to a higher level of thinking.
Van Hiele stated that there are five stages of children's learning in learning geometry, namely the introduction phase, phase analysis, phase sequencing, deduction phase, phase accuracy which will be described as follows:
a. Phase identification (Visualization)
In this stage children begin to learn to recognize a form of geometry as a whole, but has not been able to learn to know the properties of geometric shapes that he saw it. For example, if a child is shown a cube, so he did not know about the properties owned by the cube. Children do not realize that the cube has 6 sides of the square, has 12 ribs, etc.
b. Phase analysis
At this stage the child has begun to recognize the properties owned by the geometry of observed objects such as triangle, square and rectangular. Children are able to mention the regularities contained in the object's geometry. For example, when children observe the rectangle, it already knows that there are 2 pairs of opposite sides, and both pairs of sides are parallel to each other. In this stage the child has not been able to find out the relationship between an object associated geometry with other geometry objects. For example, children do not know that the square is a Rectangle, that square is a rhombus, and so forth.
c. Phase sequencing (informal deduction)
At this stage the child has begun to be able to carry out the withdrawal of conclusions, which is known as the thinking dedukif. However, this capability has not developed fully. One thing to note is that children at this stage has begun to be able to sort. For example, children already recognize that a rhombus is also a kite. In recognition of space objects, the child is able to understand that the cube is the beam. The mindset of the child at this stage is still not able to explain why the diagonal of a rectangle equal in length.
d. Phase deduction
In this stage the child is able to draw conclusions deductively, ie draw conclusions from things that are common to the things that are special. Children also have to understand how important the role of the elements that are not defined, in sampaing elements are defined. For example, children are beginning to understand the argument. In addition, at this stage the child has begun to be able to use the axioms or postulates that are used in the proof.
Postulate in pembuktikan congruent triangles, such postulates-angle corners, the sides or corner-side-angle-side, to understand, but do not understand why the postulate is true and why it can be used as a postulate in the ways of proving two triangles are congruent (congruent).
e. Phase accuracy
In this stage the child has begun to realize how important the precision of the basic principles underlying a proof. Phase accuracy is high thinking stage, complicated and complex.


B. Understanding Learning Theory
Learning according to learning theory Behavioristic is the process of behavior change as a result of the interaction between the stimulus with the response. As a result of the interaction between the stimulus to the response, students have new experiences, which causes them to hold the behavior of a new way
Learning according to cognitive learning theory is always based on cognition, namely the action knew or thought about the situation in which the behavior occurred. Gestalt psychology believes the process of acquiring the knowledge gained by memendang sensation as a whole as an object which has a structure or certain patterns, thus a person's behavior depends on the insight of the relationships that exist within a situation. Konstruktifis psychologists argue that the process of acquiring knowledge is through re-structuring of the cognitive structures that have been held to correspond with the knowledge to be obtained so that knowledge can be adapted.
According to humanistic theory, belajarv goal is to humanize humans. The main goal is to help educators pa4ra the students to develop themselves, which helps individuals to recognize themselves as unique human beings and help realize the potential in them.
C. Topics IPA and learning theory is used.
In the normal IV entitled on the development of learning scenarios based on learning theories, our group took the topic of measurement by applying a cognitive learning theory with practice teaching methods. Here we bring students directly involved in the learning situation and gain insight (observations or sudden understanding of a situation of the problem) for solving the problem. Thus the student's behavior depends on the insight of the relationships that exist about the situation.
D. Analysis and Conclusions
1. Analysis
Through this practice of our group took a topic about which the measurement tool we use is a shove. We create a conducive classroom situation by presenting an interesting flash animation so that they are not saturated with the explanation from the teacher. In addition to using animation, we also provide a direct tool in the group so they can practice the material that has been given. With the method of training students are expected to absorb the material more optimally as they gain experience on how to read and use.
In guiding students learn about measurement science topics we try to apply the cognitive learning theory in which these theories contain concepts so that students can acquire knowledge of what he saw as a whole as an object which has a structure or premises of certain patterns of behavior so students rely on insight against the relations in a situation.
2. Conclusion
After doing the lab we were able to guide students in learning science with the topic of measurement using the term slide in which the delivery of such materials kognif apply theory coupled with training methods so that students can absorb the material more optimally.
VI. Bibliography
Sugihartono, dkk.2007. Psychology pendidikan.Yogyakarta: FIP UNY
Widodo, Eko, dkk.2009. Hint lab science education. London: Science UNY